The Use of Latin and Greek in the Grand Scheme of History
Latin and Greek were two of the most influential languages in the ancient world, shaping the development of Western civilization. Their relationship evolved over time, influenced by political, cultural, and intellectual shifts.
1. Greek: The Language of Culture and Philosophy
Origins and Early Use (Before the Roman Empire)
- Greek is an Indo-European language, with its earliest known form being Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B script.
- During the Classical Greek period (5th–4th century BC), Greek became the language of philosophy, science, literature, and the arts. Think of Plato, Aristotle, Sophocles, and Homer—all their works were written in Greek.
- The Greek city-states (e.g., Athens, Sparta, Corinth) spread their language and culture, but it was Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) who played the biggest role in making Greek the dominant language of the eastern Mediterranean.
Hellenistic Greek (Koine Greek) and Its Expansion
- After Alexander’s conquests, Greek became the lingua franca (common language) of the Hellenistic world (323–31 BC), stretching from Egypt to India.
- This period saw the rise of Koine Greek (meaning “common Greek”), a simpler form of the classical language, which was used in everyday communication, trade, and governance.
- The Septuagint* (Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible) and the New Testament were written in Koine Greek, highlighting its widespread use. *See more below on the Greek Septuagint.
Greek in the Roman Era
- Even after the Roman Republic (509–27 BC) and the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) rose to power, Greek remained the dominant language in the eastern half of the empire (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria).
- Romans considered Greek the language of education, philosophy, and high culture, and many elite Romans were bilingual.
- Greek continued to be used as the primary language in the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) until its fall in 1453 AD.
2. Latin: The Language of Rome and Law
Origins and Early Use (Before the Roman Empire)
- Latin originated in Latium, the region around Rome, and was the language of the early Romans (c. 8th century BC).
- It was initially a small regional language but spread as Rome expanded its influence across Italy (by the 3rd century BC).
- The earliest Latin writings include inscriptions, religious texts, and legal codes.
Latin in the Roman Republic and Empire (509 BC–476 AD)
- As Rome conquered Italy (by 264 BC), Carthage (146 BC), Gaul (58–50 BC), and the Mediterranean, Latin became the administrative and legal language of the western provinces.
- Classical Latin (used by writers like Cicero, Virgil, and Livy) was refined into a literary form.
- However, common people spoke Vulgar Latin, a less formal version that eventually evolved into the Romance languages (Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, Romanian).
- Latin was primarily spoken in the western half of the empire (Italy, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, Britain) but was also used in administration and law throughout the empire.
Latin’s Legacy After the Fall of Rome
- After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD, Latin remained the dominant language of law, government, and the Catholic Church.
- The Catholic Church preserved Latin in its liturgy, theology, and scholarship.
- Latin remained the language of science and diplomacy in Europe until the 18th century.
3. The Relationship Between Latin and Greek
Cultural Influence
- Greek influenced Latin heavily in vocabulary, especially in philosophy, medicine, and the arts. Many Latin words were borrowed from Greek (e.g., philosophia → philosophy, theologia → theology).
- Romans admired Greek culture, and many upper-class Romans learned Greek as a second language.
- While Latin was dominant in the West, Greek remained the intellectual and cultural language of the East.
Political and Linguistic Divide in the Roman Empire
- The Roman Empire was linguistically divided:
- The Western Roman Empire (Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, North Africa) was Latin-speaking.
- The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria) remained Greek-speaking.
- This division persisted even after Rome fell, with the Byzantine Empire continuing as a Greek-speaking civilization for another 1,000 years (until 1453 AD).
Linguistic Evolution
- Greek evolved into Medieval Greek and later Modern Greek.
- Latin evolved into the Romance languages, but Church Latin survived in religious and scholarly settings.
Conclusion: Latin vs. Greek in History
- Greek was the language of philosophy, science, literature, and the Eastern Mediterranean.
- Latin was the language of law, government, the Western Roman Empire, and later the Catholic Church.
- Latin and Greek coexisted in the Roman Empire, but after its division, Greek dominated the East, and Latin the West.
Greek Septuagint
The Greek Septuagint (LXX) is the earliest Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). It was widely used by Jews in the Hellenistic world and later became the primary Old Testament for early Christians, especially Greek-speaking believers.
1. Why Was the Septuagint Created?
By the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, many Jews were living outside of Israel, especially in Egypt (particularly in Alexandria). These Jews spoke Greek rather than Hebrew or Aramaic. To ensure they could still access their Scriptures, Jewish scholars translated them into Greek.
According to tradition (recorded in the Letter of Aristeas), King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (reigned 285–246 BC) invited 72 Jewish scholars from Jerusalem to translate the Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy) into Greek for the famous Library of Alexandria. Over time, the rest of the Old Testament books were also translated.
2. What Books Are in the Septuagint?
The Septuagint includes:
- All 39 books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis–Malachi), though in a different order than the Hebrew Masoretic Text.
- Additional books not found in the Hebrew Bible (such as Wisdom, Tobit, Judith, 1 & 2 Maccabees, Sirach, Baruch, and additions to Daniel and Esther). These are often called the Deuterocanonical books or Apocrypha.
3. Importance and Influence
A. Use by Jews and Early Christians
- The Septuagint was the most widely used version of the Old Testament in the Jewish world outside Israel.
- When New Testament writers quote the Old Testament, they usually use the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew text.
- Greek-speaking Christians adopted it as their Old Testament, and it became the foundation for Christian theology.
B. Differences from the Hebrew Bible
- Some wording and phrasing are different due to translation nuances.
- The ordering of books differs from the Hebrew Bible.
- Some theological concepts appear more clearly, such as references that later Christians interpreted as prophecies of Christ.
C. Basis for Later Translations
- The Vulgate (Latin Bible) used the Septuagint for some books.
- The Orthodox Church still uses the Septuagint as its Old Testament.
- Many modern Bible translations consult the Septuagint when studying Old Testament texts.
4. Why Is It Called the “Septuagint” (LXX)?
The name Septuagint comes from the Latin word for “seventy” (septuaginta) because of the legend that 72 Jewish scholars completed the translation in 70 (or 72) days. This is why it is often abbreviated as LXX (the Roman numeral for 70).
5. Theological Significance
- The Septuagint shaped Christian theology, influencing how early believers understood prophecies about Jesus (e.g., Isaiah 7:14—”a virgin shall conceive,” which differs from the Hebrew text).
- It helped spread Judaism and later Christianity by making Scripture accessible to the Greek-speaking world.
- It was used in early church worship and influenced the development of Christian doctrine.
Latin Vulgate (by Saint Jerome)
Yes, the Latin Vulgate is a Latin translation of the Bible that became the standard version for the Western Church for over a thousand years. It was primarily the work of Saint Jerome (c. 347–420 AD) and played a crucial role in preserving and spreading the Scriptures throughout medieval Europe.
1. Background: Why Was the Vulgate Needed?
Before the Vulgate, various Latin translations of the Bible existed, known as the Vetus Latina (Old Latin). These early translations were made from the Greek Septuagint (for the Old Testament) and Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. However, they were inconsistent and varied in quality.
By the late 4th century AD, Latin had become the dominant language of the Western Roman Empire, and a more standardized and accurate Latin translation was needed. In 382 AD, Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome to produce a new, authoritative Latin Bible.
2. Jerome’s Translation Process
Sources Used:
- Old Testament: Jerome translated most of the Old Testament directly from Hebrew (rather than from the Greek Septuagint, which earlier Latin translations had used).
- New Testament: He revised the existing Latin translations based on the best available Greek manuscripts.
- Some Apocryphal books (like Wisdom, Tobit, and Sirach) were translated from the Septuagint.
Jerome’s Approach:
- He prioritized accuracy, preferring Hebrew texts over the Greek Septuagint.
- His translation was more precise and stylistically elegant compared to the older, inconsistent Latin versions.
- Jerome’s work took about 20 years to complete.
3. Why Is It Called the “Vulgate”?
The name Vulgate comes from the Latin word vulgata, meaning “common” or “made public.” It was intended to be a widely used, accessible translation for the common people.
4. The Influence and Legacy of the Vulgate
- It became the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church for over 1,000 years.
- It influenced medieval theology, philosophy, and Christian thought. Many Church Fathers, theologians, and scholars based their work on it.
- It was used in monasteries and copied by scribes throughout the Middle Ages.
- In 1546, at the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church declared the Vulgate as the official Latin Bible.
- The first Bible printed on the Gutenberg printing press was the Latin Vulgate. Known as the Gutenberg Bible, it was printed around 1454–1455 in Mainz, Germany, by Johannes Gutenberg.
- The Douay-Rheims Bible (an English Catholic translation) was based on the Vulgate.
5. Later Revisions and Modern Use
- Over time, minor errors crept into hand-copied manuscripts.
- In 1592, Pope Clement VIII issued the Clementine Vulgate, a corrected version.
- In 1979, the Nova Vulgata (New Vulgate) was published as the official Latin Bible of the Catholic Church.
While modern translations (like the NIV, ESV, and RSV) are based on Hebrew and Greek texts, the Vulgate remains historically significant, especially in Catholic liturgy and scholarship.
First Century Spoken Languages
In the first century, the Roman Empire was a multilingual society, with different languages spoken depending on the region, social class, and purpose of communication. In present-day Italy and Turkey, the primary languages were:
1. Latin (Lingua Latina) – Official and Administrative Language
- Spoken primarily in Italy, particularly in Rome and central Italy.
- Used for government, law, military, and official documents across the empire.
- Spoken by the Roman elite and educated classes.
- Vulgar Latin, a more colloquial form, was spoken by common people and eventually evolved into the Romance languages (e.g., Italian, Spanish, French).
2. Greek (Koine Greek) – The Common Language of the Eastern Roman Empire
- Spoken widely in the eastern part of the empire, including present-day Turkey (Asia Minor).
- Used for trade, philosophy, and literature.
- The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, reflecting its widespread use.
- Many educated Romans were bilingual in Latin and Greek, especially in major cities.
3. Local and Regional Languages
Besides Latin and Greek, many indigenous languages were spoken:
- Etruscan (in parts of Italy, though declining by the first century).
- Oscan and Umbrian (spoken in Italy but mostly replaced by Latin).
- Galatian (a Celtic language in central Turkey).
- Phrygian (spoken in western Turkey).
- Aramaic (common in eastern provinces and among Jewish communities).
- Lydian, Lycian, and other Anatolian languages (dying out but still used in some areas of Turkey).
4. Multilingualism in Daily Life
- In Rome and major Italian cities, Latin was dominant, but Greek was spoken by merchants, scholars, and slaves from the East.
- In Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Koine Greek was the dominant language, but Latin was used in government and military contexts.
- Many people were bilingual or trilingual, depending on their background and profession.
Most of this content came from ChatGPT. The images from ImageFX. Content and images were adapted.
